CSIR-UGC NET/JRF Life Sciences Study Materials

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Unit 1- Molecules and their Interaction

  1. Structure
    1. Atoms
    2. Molecules
    3. Chemical bonds
  2. Composition, structure and function of biomolecules
    1. Carbohydrates
    2. Lipids
    3. Proteins
    4. Nucleic acids
    5. Vitamins
  3. Stabilizing interactions
    1. Van der Waals
    2. Electrostatic
    3. Hydrogen bonding
    4. Hydrophobic interaction
  4. Principles of biophysical chemistry
    1. pH
    2. Buffer
    3. Reaction kinetics
    4. Thermodynamics
    5. Colligative properties
  5. Bioenergetics, glycolysis, oxidative phosphorylation, coupled reaction, group transfer, biological energy transducers
    1. Bioenergetics
    2. Glycolysis
    3. Oxidative phosphorylation
    4. Coupled reaction
    5. Group transfer
    6. Biological energy transducers
  6. Principles of catalysis, enzymes and enzyme kinetics, enzyme regulation, mechanism of enzyme catalysis, isozymes.
    1. Principles of catalysis
    2. Enzymes and enzyme kinetics
    3. Enzyme regulation
    4. Mechanism of enzyme catalysis
    5. Isozymes
  7. Conformation of proteins (Ramachandran plot, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure; domains; motif and folds).
    1. Ramachandran plot
    2. Secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure
    3. Domains
    4. Motif and folds
  8. Conformation of nucleic acids (A-, B-, Z-DNA), t-RNA, micro-RNA).
    1. A-DNA
    2. B-DNA
    3. Z-DNA
    4. t-RNA
    5. micro-RNA
  9. Stability of protein and nucleic acid structures.
    1. Stability of protein structures
    2. Stability of nucleic acid structures
  10. Metabolism
    1. Carbohydrates
    2. Lipids
    3. Amino acids
    4. Nucleotides
    5. Vitamins


Unit 2- Cellular Organization

  1. Membrane structure and function
    1. Structure of model membrane
    2. Lipid bilayer and membrane protein diffusion
    3. Osmosis
    4. Ion channels
    5. Active transport
    6. Ion pumps
    7. Mechanism of sorting and regulation of intracellular transport
    8. Electrical properties of membranes.
  2. Structural organization and function of intracellular organelles
    1. Cell wall
    2. Nucleus
    3. Mitochondria
    4. Golgi bodies
    5. Lysosomes
    6. Endoplasmic reticulum
    7. Peroxisomes
    8. Plastids
    9. Vacuoles
    10. Chloroplast
    11. Structure & function of cytoskeleton and its role in motility.
  3. Organization of genes and chromosomes
    1. Operon
    2. Interrupted genes
    3. Gene families
    4. Structure of chromatin and chromosomes
    5. Unique and repetitive DNA
    6. Heterochromatin
    7. Euchromatin
    8. Transposons
  4. Cell division and cell cycle
    1. Mitosis
    2. Meiosis
    3. Regulation of mitosis and meiosis
    4. Steps in cell cycle
    5. Control of cell cycle
  5. Microbial Physiology
    1. Growth
    2. Yield and characteristics
    3. Strategies of cell division
    4. Stress response


Unit 3- Fundamental Processes

  1. DNA replication, repair and recombination
    1. Unit of replication
    2. Enzymes involved
    3. Replication origin
    4. Replication fork
    5. Fidelity of replication
    6. Extrachromosomal replicons
    7. DNA damage and repair mechanisms
  2. RNA synthesis and processing
    1. Transcription factors and machinery
    2. Formation of initiation complex
    3. Transcription activators and repressors
    4. RNA polymerases
    5. Capping
    6. Elongation
    7. Termination
    8. RNA processing
    9. RNA editing
    10. Splicing
    11. Polyadenylation
    12. Structure and function of different types of RNA
    13. RNA transport
  3. Protein synthesis and processing
    1. Ribosome
    2. Formation of initiation complex
    3. Initiation factors and their regulation
    4. Elongation and elongation factors
    5. Termination
    6. Genetic code
    7. Aminoacylation of tRNA
    8. tRNA-identity
    9. Aminoacyl tRNA synthetase
    10. Translational
    11. Proof-reading
    12. Translational inhibitors
    13. Post- translational modification of proteins.
  4. Control of gene expression at transcription and translation level
    1. Regulation of gene expression in
      1. Phages
      2. Viruses
      3. Prokaryotic
      4. Eukaryotic
    2. Role of chromatin in regulating gene expression
    3. Gene silencing


Unit 4- Cell Communication & Cell Signaling

  1. Host parasite interaction
    1. Recognition and entry processes of different pathogens like bacteria, viruses into animal and plant host cells
    2. Alteration of host cell behavior by pathogens
    3. Virus-induced cell transformation
    4. Pathogen-induced diseases in animals and plants
    5. Cell-cell fusion in both normal and abnormal cells
  2. Cell signalling
    1. Hormones and their receptors
    2. Cell surface receptor
    3. Signaling through G-protein coupled receptors
    4. Signal transduction pathways
    5. Second messengers
    6. Regulation of signaling pathways
    7. Bacterial and plant two-component signaling systems
    8. Bacterial chemotaxis
    9. Quorum sensing
  3. Cellular communication
    1. Regulation of hematopoiesis
    2. General principles of cell communication
    3. Cell adhesion and roles of different adhesion molecules
    4. Gap junctions
    5. Extracellular matrix
    6. Integrins
    7. Neurotransmission and its regulation.
  4. Cancer
    1. Genetic rearrangements in progenitor cells
    2. Oncogenes
    3. Tumor suppressor genes
    4. Cancer and the cell cycle
    5. Virus-induced cancer
    6. Metastasis
    7. Interaction of cancer cells with normal cells
    8. Apoptosis
    9. Therapeutic interventions of uncontrolled cell growth
  5. Innate and adaptive immune system
    1. Cells and molecules involved in innate and adaptive immunity
    2. Antigens, antigenicity and immunogenicity
    3. B and T cell epitopes
    4. Structure and function of antibody molecules
    5. Generation of antibody diversity
    6. Monoclonal antibodies
    7. Antibody engineering
    8. Antigen-antibody interactions
    9. MHC molecules
    10. Antigen processing and presentation
    11. Activation and differentiation of B and T cells
    12. B and T cell receptors
    13. Humoral and cell-mediated immune responses
    14. Primary and secondary immune modulation
    15. The complement system
    16. Toll-like receptors
    17. Cell-mediated effector functions
    18. Inflammation
    19. Hypersensitivity and autoimmunity
    20. Immune response during
      1. Bacterial (tuberculosis)
      2. Parasitic (malaria)
      3. Viral (HIV) infections
      4. Congenital and acquired immunodeficiencies
    21. Vaccines


Unit 5- Developmental Biology

  1. Basic concepts of development
    1. Potency
    2. Commitment
    3. Specification
    4. Induction
    5. Competence
    6. Determination
    7. Differentiation
    8. Morphogenetic gradients
    9. Cell fate and cell lineages
    10. Stem cells
    11. Genomic equivalence and the cytoplasmic determinants
    12. Imprinting
    13. Mutants
    14. Transgenics in analysis of development
  2. Gametogenesis, fertilization and early development
    1. Production of gametes
    2. Cell surface molecules in sperm-egg recognition in animals
    3. Embryo sac development
    4. Double fertilization in plants
    5. Zygote formation
    6. Cleavage
    7. Blastula formation
    8. Embryonic fields
    9. Gastrulation
    10. Formation of germ layers in animals
    11. Embryogenesis
    12. Establishment of symmetry in plants
    13. Seed formation
    14. Germination
  3. Morphogenesis and organogenesis in animals:
    1. Cell aggregation and differentiation in Dictyostelium
    2. Axes and pattern formation in
      1. Drosophila
      2. Amphibia
      3. Chick
    3. Organogenesis
      1. Vulva formation in Caenorhabditis elegans
      2. Eye lens induction
      3. Limb development
      4. Regeneration in vertebrates
    4. Differentiation of neurons
    5. Post embryonic development
      1. Larval formation
      2. Metamorphosis
      3. Environmental regulation of normal development
    6. Sex determination
  4. Morphogenesis and organogenesis in plants
    1. Organization of shoot and root apical meristem
    2. Shoot and root development
    3. Leaf development and phyllotaxy
    4. Transition to flowering
    5. Floral meristems
    6. Floral development
      1. Arabidopsis
      2. Antirrhinum.
  5. Programmed cell death, aging and senescence
    1. Programmed cell death
    2. Aging
    3. Senescence


Unit 6- System Physiology – Plant

  1. Photosynthesis
    1. Light harvesting complexes
    2. Mechanisms of electron transport
    3. Photoprotective mechanisms
    4. CO2 fixation
      1. C3pathway
      2. C4 pathway
      3. CAM pathway
  2. Respiration and photorespiration
    1. Citric acid cycle
    2. Plant mitochondrial electron transport
    3. ATP synthesis
    4. Alternate oxidase
    5. Photorespiratory pathway
  3. Nitrogen metabolism
    1. Nitrate and ammonium assimilation
    2. Amino acid biosynthesis
  4. Plant hormones
    1. Biosynthesis, storage, breakdown and transport
    2. Physiological effects
    3. Mechanisms of action
  5. Sensory photobiology
    1. Structure, function and mechanisms of action of
      1. Phytochromes
      2. Cryptochromes
      3. Phototropins
    2. Stomatal movement
    3. Photoperiodism
    4. Biological clocks
  6. Solute transport and photoassimilate translocation
    1. Uptake, transport and translocation of water, ions, solutes and macromolecules from soil, through cells, across membranes, through xylem and phloem;
    2. Transpiration
    3. Mechanisms of loading and unloading of photoassimilates.
  7. Secondary metabolites
    1. Biosynthesis and roles of
      1. Terpenes
      2. Phenols
      3. Nitrogenous compounds
  8. Stress physiology
    1. Responses of plants to
      1. Biotic (pathogen and insects) stress
      2. Abiotic (water, temperature and salt) stress
    2. Mechanisms of resistance to
      1. Biotic stress
      2. Tolerance to abiotic stress


Unit 7- System Physiology – Animal

  1. Blood and circulation
    1. Blood corpuscles
    2. Haemopoiesis and formed elements
    3. Plasma function
    4. Blood volume
    5. Blood volume regulation
    6. Blood groups
    7. Haemoglobin
    8. Immunity
    9. Haemostasis
  2. Cardiovascular System
    1. Comparative anatomy of heart structure
    2. Myogenic heart
    3. Specialized tissue
    4. ECG
      1. Principle
      2. Significance
    5. Cardiac cycle
    6. Heart as a pump
    7. Blood pressure
    8. Neural and chemical regulation of all above.
  3. Respiratory system
    1. Comparison of respiration in different species
    2. Anatomical considerations
    3. Transport of gases
    4. Exchange of gases
    5. Waste elimination
    6. Neural and chemical regulation of respiration.
  4. Nervous system
    1. Neurons
    2. Action potential
    3. Gross neuroanatomy of the brain and spinal cord
    4. Central and peripheral nervous system
    5. Neural control of muscle tone and posture.
  5. Sense organs
    1. Vision
    2. Hearing
    3. Tactile response
  6. Excretory system
    1. Comparative physiology of excretion
    2. Kidney
    3. Urine formation
    4. Urine concentration
    5. Waste elimination
    6. Micturition
    7. Regulation of
      1. Water balance
      2. Blood volume
      3. Blood pressure
      4. Electrolyte balance
      5. Acid-base balance
  7. Thermoregulation
    1. Comfort zone
    2. Body temperature regulation
      1. Physical
      2. Chemical
      3. Neural
    3. Acclimatization
  8. Stress and adaptation
  9. Digestive system
    1. Digestion
    2. Absorption
    3. Energy balance
    4. BMR
  10. Endocrinology and reproduction
    1. Endocrine glands
    2. Basic mechanism of hormone action
    3. Hormones and diseases
    4. Reproductive processes
    5. Neuroendocrine regulation


Unit 8- Inheritance Biology

  1. Mendelian principles
    1. Dominance
    2. Segregation
    3. Independent assortment
    4. Deviation from Mendelian inheritance
  2. Concept of gene
    1. Allele
    2. Multiple alleles
    3. Pseudoallele
    4. Complementation tests
  3. Extensions of Mendelian principles
    1. Codominance
    2. Incomplete dominance
    3. Gene interactions
    4. Pleiotropy
    5. Genomic imprinting
    6. Penetrance and expressivity
    7. Phenocopy
    8. Linkage and crossing over
    9. Sex linkage, sex limited and sex influenced characters
  4. Gene mapping methods
    1. Linkage maps
    2. Tetrad analysis
    3. Mapping with molecular markers
    4. Mapping by using somatic cell hybrids
    5. Development of mapping population in plants
  5. Extra chromosomal inheritance
    1. Inheritance of mitochondrial and chloroplast genes
    2. Maternal inheritance
  6. Microbial genetics
    1. Methods of genetic transfers
      1. Transformation
      2. Conjugation
      3. Transduction
      4. Sex-duction
    2. Mapping genes by interrupted mating
    3. Fine structure analysis of genes
  7. Human genetics
    1. Pedigree analysis
    2. lod score for linkage testing
    3. Karyotypes
    4. Genetic disorders
  8. Quantitative genetics
    1. Polygenic inheritance
    2. Heritability and its measurements
    3. QTL mapping
  9. Mutation
    1. Types
    2. Causes
    3. Detection
    4. Mutant types
      1. Lethal
      2. Conditional
      3. Biochemical
      4. Loss of function
      5. Gain of function
    5. Germinal versus somatic mutants
    6. Insertional mutagenesis
  10. Structural and numerical alterations of chromosomes
    1. Deletion
    2. Duplication
    3. Inversion
    4. Translocation
    5. Ploidy and their genetic implications
  11. Recombination
    1. Homologous
    2. Non-homologous
    3. Transposition
    4. Site-specific recombination


Unit 9- Diversity of Life Forms

  1. Principles and methods of taxonomy
    1. Concepts of species and hierarchical taxa
    2. Biological nomenclature
    3. Classical and quantitative methods of taxonomy of plants, animals and microorganisms
  2. Levels of structural organization
    1. Unicellular
    2. Colonial
    3. Multicellular forms
    4. Levels of organization of
      1. Tissues
      2. Organs
      3. Systems
    5. comparative anatomy.
  3. Outline classification of plants, animals and microorganisms
    1. Important criteria used for classification in each taxon
    2. Classification of
      1. Plants
      2. Animals
      3. Microorganisms
  4. Evolutionary relationships among taxa
  5. Natural history of Indian subcontinent
    1. Major habitat types of the subcontinent, geographic origins and migrations of species
    2. Common Indian mammals, bird
    3. Seasonality and phenology of the subcontinent
  6. Organisms of health and agricultural importance
    1. Common parasites and pathogens of
      1. Humans
      2. Domestic animals
      3. Crops


Unit 10- Ecological Principles

  1. The Environment
    1. Physical environment
    2. Biotic environment
    3. Biotic and abiotic interactions.
  2. Habitat and niche
    1. Concept of habitat and niche
    2. Niche width and overlap
    3. Fundamental and realized niche
    4. Resource partitioning
    5. Character displacement
  3. Population ecology
    1. Characteristics of a population
    2. Population growth curves
    3. Population regulation
    4. Life history strategies (r and K selection)
    5. Concept of metapopulation – demes and dispersal, interdemic extinctions, age structured populations.
  4. Species interactions
    1. Types of interactions
    2. Interspecific competition
    3. Herbivory
    4. Carnivory
    5. Pollination
    6. Symbiosis
  5. Community ecology
    1. Nature of communities
    2. Community structure and attributes
    3. Levels of species diversity and its measurement
    4. Edges and ecotones.
  6. Ecological succession
    1. Types
    2. Mechanisms
    3. Changes involved in succession
    4. Concept of climax
  7. Ecosystem
    1. Structure and function
    2. Energy flow and mineral cycling (CNP)
    3. Primary production and decomposition
    4. Structure and function of some Indian ecosystems
      1. Terrestrial (forest, grassland)
      2. Aquatic (fresh water, marine, eustarine).
  8. Biogeography
    1. Major terrestrial biomes
    2. Theory of island biogeography
    3. Biogeographical zones of India.
  9. Applied ecology
    1. Environmental pollution
    2. Global environmental change
    3. Biodiversity-status, monitoring and documentation
    4. Major drivers of biodiversity change
    5. Biodiversity management approaches
  10. Conservation biology
    1. Principles of conservation
    2. Major approaches to management
    3. Indian case studies on conservation/management strategy (Project Tiger, Biosphere reserves)


Unit 11- Evolution and Behavior

  1. Emergence of evolutionary thoughts
    1. Lamarck
    2. Darwin–concepts of variation, adaptation, struggle, fitness and natural selection
    3. Mendelism
    4. Spontaneity of mutations
    5. The evolutionary synthesis
  2. Origin of cells and unicellular evolution
    1. Origin of basic biological molecules
    2. Abiotic synthesis of organic monomers and polymers
    3. Concept of Oparin and Haldane
    4. Experiment of Miller (1953)
    5. The first cell
    6. Evolution of prokaryotes
    7. Origin of eukaryotic cells
    8. Evolution of unicellular eukaryotes
    9. Anaerobic metabolism, photosynthesis and aerobic metabolism.
  3. Paleontology and evolutionary history
    1. The evolutionary time scale
    2. Eras, periods and epoch
    3. Major events in the evolutionary time scale
    4. Origins of unicellular and multicellular organisms
    5. Major groups of plants and animals
    6. Stages in primate evolution including Homo
  4. Molecular Evolution
    1. Concepts of neutral evolution, molecular divergence and molecular clocks
    2. Molecular tools in phylogeny, classification and identification
    3. Protein and nucleotide sequence analysis
    4. Origin of new genes and proteins
    5. Gene duplication and divergence
  5. The Mechanisms
    1. Population genetics – populations, gene pool, gene frequency
    2. Hardy-Weinberg law
    3. Concepts and rate of change in gene frequency through
      1. Natural selection
      2. Migration
      3. Random genetic drift
    4. Adaptive radiation and modifications
    5. Isolating mechanisms
    6. Speciation
    7. Allopatricity and sympatricity
    8. Convergent evolution
    9. Sexual selection
    10. Co-evolution
  6. Brain, Behavior and Evolution
    1. Approaches and methods in study of behaviour
    2. Proximate and ultimate causation
    3. Altruism and evolution-group selection, kin selection, reciprocal altruism
    4. Neural basis of learning, memory, cognition, sleep and arousal
    5. Biological clocks
    6. Development of behaviour
    7. Social communication
    8. Social dominance
    9. Use of space and territoriality
    10. Mating systems, parental investment and reproductive success
    11. Parental care
    12. Aggressive behaviour
    13. Habitat selection and optimality in foraging
    14. Migration, orientation and navigation
    15. Domestication and behavioral changes


Unit 12- Applied Biology

  1. Microbial fermentation and production of small and macro molecules
  2. Application of immunological principles (vaccines, diagnostics)
  3. Tissue and cell culture methods for plants and animals
  4. Transgenic animals and plants, molecular approaches to diagnosis and strain identification
  5. Genomics and its application to health and agriculture, including gene therapy
  6. Bioresource and uses of biodiversity
  7. Breeding in plants and animals, including marker – assisted selection
  8. Bioremediation and phytoremediation
  9. Biosensors


Unit 13- Methods in Biology

  1. Molecular biology and recombinant DNA methods
    1. Isolation and purification of RNA , DNA (genomic and plasmid) and proteins, different separation methods
    2. Analysis of RNA, DNA and proteins by one and two dimensional gel electrophoresis, isoelectric focusing gels
    3. Molecular cloning of DNA or RNA fragments in bacterial and eukaryotic systems
    4. Expression of recombinant proteins using bacterial, animal and plant vectors
    5. Isolation of specific nucleic acid sequences
    6. Generation of genomic and cDNA libraries in plasmid, phage, cosmid, BAC and YAC vectors
    7. In vitro mutagenesis and deletion techniques, gene knock out in bacterial and eukaryotic organisms
    8. Protein sequencing methods, detection of post-translation modification of proteins
    9. DNA sequencing methods, strategies for genome sequencing
    10. Methods for analysis of gene expression at RNA and protein level, large scale expression analysis, such as micro array-based techniques
    11. Isolation, separation and analysis of carbohydrate and lipid molecules
    12. Techniques
      1. RFLP
      2. RAPD
      3. AFLP
  2. Histochemical and immunotechniques
    1. Antibody generation
    2. Detection of molecules using ELISA, RIA, western blot, immunoprecipitation, flowcytometry and immunofluorescence microscopy
    3. Detection of molecules in living cells
    4. in situ localization by techniques such as FISH and GISH.
  3. Biophysical methods
    1. Analysis of biomolecules using UV/visible, fluorescence, circular dichroism, NMR and ESR spectroscopy
    2. Structure determination using X-ray diffraction and NMR
    3. Analysis using light scattering
    4. Different types of mass spectrometry
    5. Surface plasma resonance methods.
  4. Statistical Methods
    1. Measures of central tendency and dispersal
    2. Probability distributions (Binomial, Poisson and normal)
    3. Sampling distribution
    4. Difference between parametric and non-parametric statistics
    5. Confidence interval
    6. Errors
    7. Levels of significance
    8. Regression and correlation
    9. t-test
    10. Analysis of variance
    11. X2 test
    12. Basic introduction to Muetrovariate statistics, etc.
  5. Radiolabeling techniques
    1. Properties of different types of radioisotopes normally used in biology, their detection and measurement
    2. Incorporation of radioisotopes in biological tissues and cells, molecular imaging of radioactive material, safety guidelines
  6. Microscopic techniques
    1. Visulization of cells and subcellular components by light microscopy
    2. Resolving powers of different microscopes
    3. Microscopy of living cells
    4. Scanning and transmission microscopes
    5. Different fixation and staining techniques for EM
    6. Freeze-etch and freeze-fracture methods for EM
    7. Image processing methods in microscopy
  7. Electrophysiological methods
    1. Single neuron recording
    2. Patch-clamp recording
    3. ECG
    4. Brain activity recording
    5. Lesion and stimulation of brain
    6. Pharmacological testing
    7. PET
    8. MRI
    9. fMRI
    10. CAT
  8. Methods in field biology
    1. Methods of estimating population density of animals and plants, ranging patterns through direct, indirect and remote observations
    2. Sampling methods in the study of behavior, habitat characterization-ground and remote sensing methods.
  9. Computational methods
    1. Nucleic acid and protein sequence databases
    2. Data mining methods for sequence analysis
    3. Web-based tools for sequence searches
    4. Motif analysis and presentation

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